Biology
Evolutionary Biology: Study of history of life forms.
- Is There A Limit To Evolution On Earth?
What are our limits to evolution? There are two theories concerning the growth of diversity amongst the planet. These 2 theories include diversity in an equilibrium or diversity that is rapidly expanding (occupying every possible niche, as well as, exploiting...
- Evidence For Evolution
What is the Evidence for Evolution? There are many different pieces of evidence for evolution; paleontology, biogeography, developmental biology, morphology, and genetics. I will be discussing what each piece of evidence means. Paleontology is...
- Evolution
Evolution: Darwin vs. Lamarck Darwin's theory is called descent with modification. This means that he believed that each generation of an organisms offspring is in someway different than the previous generation. Which in conclusion would mean that...
- Adaptation And Natural Selection
Darwin proposed that all living things were related and that everything evolved from a common ancestor. He realised that there was variation within a population, and that only the best adapted to the environment would survive and pass on their genes (survival...
- Population: Ecology
This picture was taken at the Arnold Arboretum. Here is a large plot of land where many different shrubs and trees grow for display. All of these plants in one area are their own population. A population consists of organisms that can successfully reproduce...
Biology
5. Evolution
Click here for PDF
Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another.Evolutionary Biology: Study of history of life forms.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
Big Bang Theory states that universe originated about 20 billion years ago, by a thermonuclear explosion (big bang) of a dense entity.
The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, CH4, CO2 & NH3 released from molten mass covered the surface.
H2O ? H2+ O2
NH3+ O2 ? water
CH4+ O2 ? CO2
Then the ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans.
Theories of origin of life
1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis): It states that, life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud etc.
Louis Pasteur demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life and disproved this theory.
He showed that in pre-sterilized flasks, life did not come from killed yeast while in another flask open to air, new living organisms arose.
2. Biogenesis: Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur. It states that, life originates from pre-existing life.
3. Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia): It states that, the units of life (spores) were transferred to different planets including earth.
4. Theory of special creation: It states that, living & non-living was created by some supernatural power (God).
5. Theory of chemical evolution: Proposed by Oparin & Haldane. It states that, the first form of life was originated from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids etc. i.e. ?Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever since?.
Urey-Miller experiment
Harold Urey & Stanley Miller conducted an experiment to prove theory of chemical evolution. They created a condition similar to that of primitive earth (i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere containing CH4, NH3, H2O, H2 etc).
They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800o C. As a result, some amino acids are formed.
In similar experiments, others observed formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.
First non-cellular form of life originated 3 billion years ago.
They were RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc.
EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
1. Paleontological evidences
Paleontology: The study of fossils.
Fossils: These are remnants of life forms found in rocks (earth crust). Fossils are written documents of evolution.
Significance of fossils:
a. To study phylogeny(evolutionary history or race history). E.g. Horse evolution.
b. To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.
c. To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs
d. To study about geological period by analyzing fossils in different sedimentary rock layers.The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time spans.
2. Morphological and Anatomical evidences
Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different forms of animals have some common structural features. This can be explained as follows:
a. Homologous organs and Homology
- Homologous organs are the organs having fundamental similarity in structure and origin but different functions. This phenomenon is called Homology.
- E.g. Human hand, Whale?s flippers, Bat?s wing, and Cheetah?s foot. All these perform different functions, but are constructed on the same plan.
- Homology can be seen in skeleton (e.g. humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals & phalanges), heart, blood vessels, excretory system, brain etc.
- Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
- The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution (It is the process by which related speciesbecome less similar in order to survive and adapt in different environmental condition).
- Homology indicates common ancestry.
b. Analogous organs and Analogy
Analogous organs are the organs having similar function but different structure and origin. This phenomenon is called Analogy.E.g.
§ Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds (modified forelimbs).
§ Eyes of Octopus(retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic brain).
§ Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
§ Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
§ Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from endoderm).
Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution (It is the process by which unrelated speciesbecome more similar in order to survive and adapt in similar environmental condition).
3. Adaptive radiation (Biogeographical evidences)
Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is theevolution of closely related species in a given geographical area starting from a point. E.g.
o Darwin?s finches (seen in Galapagos Islands).
o Australian marsupials.
o Placental mammals in Australia.
Placental mammals: Mole, Anteater, Mouse, Lemur, Flying squirrel, Bobcat, Wolf.
When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, this leads to convergent evolution.
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.
Placental mammals | Australian Marsupials |
Mole | Marsupial mole |
Ant eater | Numbat (Ant eater) |
Mouse | Marsupial mouse |
Lemur | Spotted cuscus |
Flying squirrel | Flying phalanger |
Bobcat | Tasmanian tiger cat |
Wolf | Tasmanian wolf |
4. Biochemical evidences
- Similarities in proteins and genes
- Similarities in other biomolecules and metabolism.
5. Evidences for evolution by natural selection
Natural selection is the process by which the organisms that are best suited for their environment survive and reproduce. Some evidences are given below.
Industrial melanism (In England)
§Before industrialization (1850s): There were more white winged moths (Biston betularia) on trees than dark winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria).
Reason: There was white coloured lichen covered the trees. In that background the white winged moths survived but the dark coloured moths were picked out by predators.
§After industrialization (1920): More dark winged moths and less white winged moths.
Reason: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soot. No growth of lichens. Under this condition the white winged moth did not survive because the predators identified them easily. Dark winged moth survived because of suitable dark background.
o Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibioticsor drugsetc resulted in selection of resistant varieties (Natural selection by anthropogenic action).
THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
1. Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of
Acquired characters)
Proposed by Lamarck. It states that evolution of life forms occurred by use and disuse of organs. E.g.
oEvolution by use of organs: Long neck of giraffe is due to continuous elongation to forage leaves on tall trees. This acquired character was inherited to succeeding generations.
o Evolution by disuse: Disappearance of limbs in snakes.
This theory was eliminated out because it is proved that the characters are inherited only through genes.
2. Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection)
Proposed by Charles Darwin. It is based on 2 key concepts
· Branching descent | · Natural selection |
Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are modified descendants of previous life forms.
Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony (say A) growing on a given medium. If the medium composition is changed, only a part of the population (say B) can survive under new condition. This variant population outgrows the others and appears as new species, i.e. B is better than A under new condition. Nature selects for fitness.
Work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.
Natural selection is based on the following facts:
· Heritable minor variations
· Overproduction by organisms
· Limited natural resources
· Struggle for existence
· Survival of the fittest
Population size grows exponentially if everybody reproduces maximally (E.g. bacterial population). In fact, population size is limited due to competition for resources (Struggle for existence). Only some survives (Survival of the fittest).
Darwin said that the organisms with heritable variations make resource utilization better. They reproduce and leave more progeny. It leads to a change in population characteristics and new forms appear.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism of speciation.
Hugo de Vriesproposed Mutation Theory of evolution. He conducted some experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana (evening primrose) and believed that evolution takes place through mutation and not by minor variation.
Differences between Darwinian variation & mutation
Darwinian variation | Mutation |
Minor variation | Large variation |
Slow and directional | Random, sudden & directionless |
Gradual evolution | Speciation by saltation (single step, large mutation) |
Hardy- Weinberg Principle
- It says that allele frequencies in a population are stable and constant from generation to generation.
- The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called genetic equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
- Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1
- E.g. In a diploid, p and q are the frequencies of alleles A & arespectively.
The frequency of AA = p2 (i.e. the probability of an allele A with frequency p is the product of the probabilities, i.e. p2)
The frequency of aa = q2
The frequency of Aa = 2pq
Hence p2 + 2pq + q2= 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2]
Change of frequency of alleles in a population causes disturbance in genetic equilibrium. This is due to evolution.
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
a. Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another. Here gene frequencies change in both populations. There would be a gene flow if migration happens multiple times.
b. Genetic drift: The accidental gene flow causing change in frequency. Sometimes, the change in frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different species. The original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.
c. Mutation: Mutations result in formation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to speciation.
d. Genetic recombination: It is the reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing over resulting in genetic variation.
e. Natural selection: 3 types.
i. Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value and variation is reduced.
ii. Directional selection: Here, individuals of one extreme are more favoured.
iii. Disruptive selection:
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
} Proterozoic era: 2000 million years ago (mya):
? First cellular forms of life.
? Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the light reaction in photosynthesis.
? Single celled organisms ? Multicellular organisms
} Paleozoic era:
? 500 mya: Invertebrates.
? 400-600 mya: First land organisms (plants).
? 400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.
? 350 mya: Jawless fish. Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water.
? 320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants.
? Amphibians to reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians.
? In the next 200 million years reptiles dominated on earth. Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
} Mesozoic era:
? 200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish-like reptiles (E.g. Ichthyosaurs).
? The land reptiles were dinosaurs. They include
} Tyrannosaurus rex: Largest dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge fearsome dagger-like teeth).
}Triceratops | } Pteranodon |
}Stegosaurus | } Brachiosaurus |
} Coenozoic era:
? 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared
? First mammals (shrew-like). Their fossils are small sized.
? In South America, there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc. Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North American fauna.
? Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack of competition from any other mammals.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN
· Dryopithecus &Ramapithecus (15 mya):
Hairy. Walked like gorillas & chimpanzee.
Dryopithecus: ape-like.
Ramapithecus: man-like.
Fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia & Tanzania.
· Man-like primates (3-4 mya): Height up to 4 feet.
· Australo-pithecus (2 mya):
In East African grass lands.
Hunted with stone weapons. Ate fruits.
Homo habilis:
First human-like being (hominid).
Brain capacity: 650-800 cc. Did not eat meat.
· Homo erectus (1.5 mya):
Large brain (900 cc). Ate meat.
· Neanderthal man (40,000- 1 lakh yrs ago):
Brain 1400 cc.
Lived in East & Central Asia.
Used hides to protect their body.
Buried their dead.
· Homo sapiens (Modern man): 10,000 to 75,000 yrs ago.
Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. Agriculture & settlements: 10,000 years ago.Click here for PDF
- Is There A Limit To Evolution On Earth?
What are our limits to evolution? There are two theories concerning the growth of diversity amongst the planet. These 2 theories include diversity in an equilibrium or diversity that is rapidly expanding (occupying every possible niche, as well as, exploiting...
- Evidence For Evolution
What is the Evidence for Evolution? There are many different pieces of evidence for evolution; paleontology, biogeography, developmental biology, morphology, and genetics. I will be discussing what each piece of evidence means. Paleontology is...
- Evolution
Evolution: Darwin vs. Lamarck Darwin's theory is called descent with modification. This means that he believed that each generation of an organisms offspring is in someway different than the previous generation. Which in conclusion would mean that...
- Adaptation And Natural Selection
Darwin proposed that all living things were related and that everything evolved from a common ancestor. He realised that there was variation within a population, and that only the best adapted to the environment would survive and pass on their genes (survival...
- Population: Ecology
This picture was taken at the Arnold Arboretum. Here is a large plot of land where many different shrubs and trees grow for display. All of these plants in one area are their own population. A population consists of organisms that can successfully reproduce...